For millions of fans, an official football shirt is a badge of loyalty, identity and pride. But a BBC Sport investigation has traced some of the game’s biggest club kits back to factories in Cambodia, where workers say they are paid less than £1 an hour and face punishing conditions on the production line.
The findings connect the polished world of elite football retail with the harsh realities of garment manufacturing. Shirts for clubs including Arsenal, Celtic, Liverpool and Real Madrid were linked to Bowker Garment Factory and Trax Apparel, where employees described high temperatures, intense quotas and pressure that left little room for comfort or recovery.
What the investigation found
According to workers interviewed anonymously, the factories operate under a relentless production rhythm. Staff said they could be expected to work on up to 700 items a day, while basic monthly wages at one site were reported at $210-$220, or about £158-£166, before overtime and allowances.
In rare accounts shared with the BBC, employees described temperatures above 35C, verbal abuse when targets were missed and safety worries linked to exposed electrical equipment. The picture that emerged was not just about low pay, but about strain, speed and risk built into everyday work.
Living costs versus shirt prices
The gap between what workers earn and what fans pay was a central theme of the investigation. One worker at Bowker said it was “hard to live with this amount,” while another at Trax said a single shirt bought by a customer could equal more than two weeks of salary.
That contrast will resonate with supporters already frustrated by rising prices. An Arsenal shirt now retails at £85, rising to £120 for the same specification worn by players, while a Villa supporter told the BBC that buying a shirt with a Champions League badge cost him £95.
How the supply chain works
Shirt production begins months before fans see the finished product in club stores. Fabric is imported from Thailand and Vietnam, a specialist tailor makes the first sample, and large factory lines handle sewing, ironing and packaging at scale.
About 3,400 people work at Bowker on the outskirts of Phnom Penh, while another 3,200 are employed around 10 miles away at Trax Apparel. More than 80% of Trax’s workforce are women, underlining how heavily the industry depends on female labour across Cambodia’s garment sector.
One internal photograph seen by BBC Sport showed a thermometer reading 35.2C with humidity at 57.6%. Workers said heat stress was a real issue, particularly on the ironing line, where the pace and conditions could take a toll over long shifts.
Club kits, global brands and rising prices
The report also shines a light on the economics behind football shirts. A previous study cited by the BBC estimated that on a typical £85 shirt, only £8.50 covers fabric, sewing and shipping, while £37.45 goes to the retailer, £16.25 to the manufacturer, £9.50 to marketing and £13.60 to VAT.
That breakdown helps explain why shirt prices have climbed sharply over the past decade. Industry experts say kit deals with elite clubs have become more expensive, while brands and retailers also look to protect margins in a highly competitive market.
Dave Welsh of the Solidarity Center described football jersey mark-ups as unusually lucrative, while former kit designer Rob Warner argued the picture is more complex. He said retailer risk and rising club deal costs were also part of the price equation.
What the brands said
Adidas said it does not own either factory, but that both are primary suppliers subject to workplace standards. The company said it had carried out about 1,200 factory audits per year for more than 25 years and worked with suppliers to improve conditions where necessary.
Adidas also said average net wages across a sample of its Cambodian suppliers were 34% above the Anker Research Institute’s living-wage benchmark, and that workers were usually paid above the local minimum wage. Trax, meanwhile, said its average monthly employee earnings ranged from $305-$342 this year and denied that its approach was based on enforcing output targets.
Bowker did not respond to the BBC’s request for comment.
Heat, quotas and worker pressure
Beyond pay, the report points to wider concerns that are common across Cambodia’s garment industry. A 2024 International Labour Organization report found that 69% of factories had issues with heat and 84% with worker protection, suggesting these problems are not isolated.
Workers in the BBC investigation said missed quotas could lead to shouting and humiliation. One employee at Bowker said supervisors would “scold and yell” and tell workers to resign. Another said they had suffered electric shocks from an exposed wire before action was taken.
Adidas said both factories had heat-management measures and that its standards do not permit harassment. The company also said no electrical-related accidents had been found in Bowker’s records.
Why fans are turning away
The revelations come as the cost of following football continues to rise. Some supporters are already buying fewer official shirts, while counterfeit jerseys sold for as little as £12 continue to attract demand. Police and Trading Standards have long warned that fake items may be made without regard for labour rights or safety standards.
For clubs and brands, the story is a reputational challenge as much as an ethical one. Fans want to wear the badge, but increasingly they are also asking what sits behind it.
Anna Bryher of Labour Behind the Label said respect must be the baseline. “Clubs need to send a really strong message that they won’t put their name on a shirt if workers are not treated with respect,” she said.
That is the question now sitting at the heart of the football shirt business: how much is a replica jersey really worth, and who pays the hidden price when the final product reaches the club shop?
